These summaries provide the main findings of the leading social science studies focused on gay parents and their children. See Too High A Price for further information on the research studies of LGBT families.

Experience of Parenthood, Couple Relationship, Social Support, and Child-Rearing Goals in Planned Lesbian Mother Families
Henny M.W. Bos, Frank van Balen, Dymphna C. van den Boom

This study focused on whether lesbian couples with children differ from heterosexual couples with children, in terms of parenting competence, burdens, stress, parenting justification, relationship satisfaction, division of labor, use of social support, and the child rearing goals of conformity and autonomy. No differences were found with respect to most of these factors. However, there were some differences: among the lesbian couples, there was more sharing of family responsibilities and, thus, more satisfaction with their partners then among the heterosexual couples; the lesbian mothers found children’s conformity to social expectations less important than heterosexual parents did; and lesbian non-biological mothers shared greater need to justify the quality of their parenting than did heterosexual fathers. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 45:4 (2004), pp. 755-764.

Family Functioning in Lesbian Families Created by Donor Insemination
Katrien Vanfraussen, Ingrid Ponjaert-Kristoffersen, Anne Brewaeys

This study compared the relationship between parent and child in heterosexual and lesbian families in the following categories: parent participation in child activities, general conversations between parent and child, emotional issues, affection, quarrels/disputes, and authority. This study found virtually no differences in how parents and children in each group perceived the quality of their relationships with one another. One of the differences between the two types of families was that the biological and non-biological mothers in the lesbian families shared parental responsibilities for their child more equally than in heterosexual families. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 0002-9432, January 1, 2003, Vol. 73, Issue 1

What Does It Mean for Youngsters to Grow up in a Lesbian Family Created by Means of Donor Insemination?
K. Vanfraussen, I. Ponjaert-Kristoffersen & A. Brewaeys

This study explored how children from lesbian families created by donor insemination presented their non-traditional family to their peers, whether these children were teased or harassed about their parents’ sexual orientation, and whether introducing a non-traditional family to their peers affected their psychological well being. The study found that these children were not more likely to be teased than children of heterosexual families, but if teased, it was more likely to be family-related teasing incidents. Moreover, introducing their non-traditional family to their peer group did not interfere with their psychological well being; in fact, children from both groups of families had equally good self-esteem and felt equally accepted by their peers.
Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology, Vol. 20, No. 4, 2002.

Parenting Behaviors of Homosexual and Heterosexual Fathers
Jerry J. Bigner and R. Brooke Jacobsen

This study investigated parenting behaviors in heterosexual and gay fathers. Gay fathers did not differ significantly from heterosexual fathers in terms of overall parental involvement, intimacy, and parenting skills. There were some differences between the groups in approaches to parenting; for example, gay fathers tended to be more communicative with their children and to enforce rules more strictly. 1989. Journal of Homosexuality, Vol. 18, pp. 173-186.

Adult Responses to Child Behavior and Attitudes Toward Fathering: Gay and Non-Gay Fathers
Jerry J. Bigner, R. Brooke Jacobsen

This study found no differences between parenting behaviors and attitudes about fathering between gay and heterosexual fathers. 1992. Journal of Homosexuality, Vol. 23, No. 3, pp. 99-112.

Donor Insemination: Child Development and Family Functioning in Lesbian Mother Families
A. Brewaeys, I. Ponjaert, E.V. Van Hall, and S. Golombok

This study found that children in lesbian mother homes were as positive and healthy as children in homes headed by a mother and a father. Researchers compared children of lesbian couples conceived via donor insemination, children of heterosexual couples conceived via donor insemination, and children of heterosexual couples who conceived conventionally. Overall, lesbian non-biological mothers were found to have better relationships with their children than the heterosexual fathers. No differences were found between the three groups of children. 1997. Human Reproduction, Vol. 12, No. 6, pp. 1349-1359.

Division of Labor Among Lesbian and Heterosexual Parents: Associations with Children's Adjustment
Raymond W. Chan, Risa C. Brooks, Barbara Raboy, and Charlotte J. Patterson

This study found that lesbian couples and heterosexual couples reported even splits of household labor and decision-making. In the area of childcare, the heterosexual couples had a less equal distribution of responsibilities, with the mothers generally taking a larger role. There were no differences between the groups of children in their social adjustment with peers. 1998. Journal of Family Psychology, Vol. 12, No. 3, pp. 402-419.

Psychosocial Adjustment among Children Conceived via Donor Insemination by Lesbian and Heterosexual Mothers
Raymond W. Chan, Barbara Raboy, and Charlotte Patterson

This study found that the sexual orientation and relationship status of parents had no significant impact on the psychological well being of their children. Rather, children were impacted by other factors, such as parents' psychological well being and parenting stress—neither of which had anything to do with sexual orientation. 1998 (April). Child Development, Vol. 69, No. 2, pages 443-457.

Lesbians Choosing Motherhood: A Comparative Study of Lesbian and Heterosexual Parents and Their Children
David K. Flaks, Ilda Ficher, Frank Masterpasqua, Gregory Joseph

This study found that children of lesbians and children of heterosexuals were equally healthy in terms of psychological well-being and social adjustment. The lesbian mothers were found to have more developed parenting awareness skills than the heterosexual parents. 1995. Developmental Psychology, Vol. 31, No. 1, pp. 105-114.

Children in Lesbian and Single-Parent Households: Psychosexual and Psychiatric Appraisal
Susan Golombok, Ann Spencer, and Michael Rutter

This study found no significant differences between children raised by lesbians and children raised by single heterosexual mothers on measures of emotions, behavior, and relationships with peers. Also, no differences were found in terms of their gender identity or gender behavior. 1983. Journal of Child Psychology, Vol. 24, No. 4, pp. 551-572.

Adults Raised as Children in Lesbian Families
Fiona Tasker and Susan Golombok

This study found no significant difference between children raised by lesbian parents and those raised by heterosexual parents in the quality of the young adults' relationships with their mothers, in incidences of teasing or bullying in high school, or in their emotional well-being. No differences were found in the proportion of each group that reported experiencing sexual attraction to someone of the same sex, though the children of lesbians were more likely to act, or consider acting, on those attractions. 1995. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, Vol. 65, No.2, pp.203-215.

Do Parents Influence the Sexual Orientation of Their Children? Findings From a Longitudinal Study of Lesbian Families
Susan Golombok and Fiona Tasker

This study found that there was no significant difference in the number of self-identified lesbian and gay young adults from lesbian-headed families and from heterosexual-headed families. Similarly, no significant difference was found between the two groups in those who reported experiencing same-sex attraction. Daughters of lesbians, however, were significantly more likely to report being open to same-sex attractions or relationships. Children of lesbians were significantly more likely to have had a same-sex sexual experience. 1996. Developmental Psychology, Vol. 32, No. 1, pp. 3-11.

Lesbian Mothers and Their Children: A Comparison with Solo Parent Heterosexual Mothers and Their Children
Richard Green, Jane Barclay Mandel, Mary E. Hotvedt, James Gray, Laurel Smith

This study found that children of lesbians and children of heterosexual single mothers show no differences in gender identity and social adjustment with peers. Some differences were detected in gender behavior: daughters of lesbians were found to be less confined in their choices by stereotypical notions of feminine- and masculine- appropriate behavior. Some significant differences were detected between the mothers themselves. Lesbian mothers had higher levels of self-confidence and sought more leadership roles, while the heterosexual mothers had lower self-confidence and sought subordinate roles. 1986. Archives of Sexual Behavior, Vol. 15, No. 2, pp. 167-185.

Gay and Lesbian Parents
Mary B. Harris and Pauline H. Turner

This study found no significant parenting differences between gay and lesbian parents and their heterosexual counterparts. 1985-86. Journal of Homosexuality, Vol. 12, No. 2, pp. 101-113.

Children's Acquisition of Sex-Role Behavior in Lesbian-Mother Families
Beverly Hoeffer

This study found no significant differences between the gender behavior of children of lesbian and heterosexual mothers. It also found that lesbian mothers were significantly more likely to prefer that their kids play with a more equal mix of masculine and feminine toys, while heterosexual mothers tended to prefer that girls play with stereotypically feminine toys and boys play with stereotypically masculine toys. 1981. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, Vol. 51, No. 3. pp. 536-544.

Children of Lesbian Mothers
Mary E. Hotvedt and Jane Barclay Mandel

No significant differences were found between children of divorced lesbian and heterosexual mothers in terms of general well being and relationships with peers. There were no differences between boys in terms of gender behavior, but daughters of lesbians tended to have preferences in play and career choice that were not confined by traditional notions of female toys and occupations. 1982. Homosexuality, Social, Psychological, and Biological Issues, edited by W. Paul. Sage: Beverly Hills, CA.

A Comparative Study of Self-Esteem of Adolescent Children of Divorced Lesbian Mothers and Divorced Heterosexual Mothers
Sharon L. Huggins

This study found no significant difference between the self-esteem of children with heterosexual mothers and children with lesbian mothers. 1989. Homosexuality and the Family, edited by F.W. Bozett. Haworth: New York.

The Children of Homosexual and Heterosexual Single Mothers
Ghazala Afzal Javaid

Significantly more lesbian mothers than heterosexual mothers expressed willingness to accept their child if he or she later came out as gay. No differences were found between children in terms of gender identity or sexual orientation. 1993. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, Vol. 23, No. 4, pp. 235-248.

Lesbian Mothers and Their Children: A Comparative Survey
Martha Kirkpatrick, Catherine Smith, and Ron Roy

This study found no difference between children of lesbian mothers and children of single heterosexual mothers in psychological well-being or gender behavior. 1981 (July). American Journal of Psychiatry, Vol. 51, No. 3, pp. 545-551.

Heterosexual and Homosexual Mothers' Self Described Sex-Role Behavior and Ideal Sex-Role Behavior in Children
Sally L. Kweskin and Alicia S. Cook

This study found that a mother's gender behavior—not her sexual orientation—may be a more important influence on her children's gender identity. 1982. Sex Roles, Vol 8., No. 9, pp. 967-975.

Families and Parenting: A Comparison of Lesbian and Heterosexual Mothers
Kevin F. McNeill, Beth M. Rienzi, and Augustine Kposowa

This study found that lesbian and heterosexual mother groups did not differ significantly in relationships with their children, parenting practices, and overall family stress. 1998. Psychological Reports, Vol. 82, pp. 59-62.

The Child's Home Environment for Lesbian vs. Heterosexual Mother: A Neglected Area of Research
Judith Ann Miller, R. Brooke Jacobsen, Jerry J. Bigner

This study measured the way lesbian and heterosexual mothers responded to a variety of situations involving their children. It found that lesbian mothers were significantly more likely to respond in a child-oriented way (oriented more towards helping the child understand the situation) than the heterosexual mothers who responded in more task-oriented ways (simply disciplining the children without explaining why). 1981 (Fall). Journal of Homosexuality, Vol. 7, No. 1, pp. 49-56.

Children of the Lesbian Baby Boom: Behavioral Adjustment, Self-Concepts, and Sex Role Identity
Charlotte Patterson

This study found that children of lesbian mothers did not differ from other children in the areas of psychological well-being, social adjustment with peers, and gender behavior. The children of lesbian mothers had two differences: they tended to have both a higher stress level and a higher sense of well being. 1994. Lesbian & Gay Psychology: Theory, Research, and Clinical Applications, edited by B. Green and G.M. Herek. SAGE: Thousand Oaks, California.

Psychological Health and Factors: The Court Seeks to Control in Lesbian Mother Custody Trials
Catherine Rand, Dee L. R. Graham, and Edna I. Rawlings

This study found no significant differences between lesbian mothers and other mothers in psychological health. It also found that divorced lesbians tend to have a better level of mental health if they are open about their sexuality to their children and former husband. 1982 (Fall). Journal of Homosexuality, Vol. 8, No. 1, pp. 27-39.

Rozzie and Harriet? Gender and Family Patterns of Lesbian Coparents
Maureen Sullivan

This study investigated the relationships of lesbian couples who have children and the way these women share responsibilities. The study found that most of the couples share responsibility in more egalitarian ways than the stereotypical, nuclear family model, but the author did not study any heterosexual parents. 1996 (December). Gender & Society, Vol. 10, No. 6, pp. 747-767.